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Complete Home and Office Legal Guide (Chestnut) (1993).ISO
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/* Part 3 of the Cruzan case; dissenting opinion. */
The majority next argues that where, as here, important indivi-
dual rights are at stake, a clear and convincing evidence stan-
dard has long been held to be an appropriate means of enhancing
accuracy, citing decisions concerning what process an individual
is due before he can be deprived of a liberty interest. See
ante, at 18-19. In those cases, however, this Court imposed a
----
clear and convincing standard as a constitutional minimum on the
basis of its evaluation that one side's interests clearly
outweighed the second side's interests and therefore the second
side should bear the risk of error. See Santosky v. Kramer, 455
-------- ------
U. S. 745, 753, 766-767 (1982) (requiring a clear and convincing
evidence standard for termination of parental rights because the
parent's interest is fundamental but the State has no legitimate
interest in termination unless the parent is unfit, and finding
that the State's interest in finding the best home for the child
does not arise until the parent has been found unfit); Addington
---------
v. Texas, 441 U. S. 418, 426-427 (1979) (requiring clear and con-
-----
vincing evidence in an involuntary commitment hearing because the
interest of the individual far outweighs that of a State, which
has no legitimate interest in confining individuals who are not
mentally ill and do not pose a danger to themselves or others).
Moreover, we have always recognized that shifting the risk of er-
ror reduces the likelihood of errors in one direction at the cost
of increasing the likelihood of errors in the other. See Adding-
-------
ton, supra, at 423 (contrasting heightened standards of proof to
--- -----
a preponderance standard in which the two sides ``share the risk
of error in roughly equal fashion'' because society does not
favor one outcome over the other). In the cases cited by the ma-
jority, the imbalance imposed by a heightened evidentiary stan-
dard was not only acceptable but required because the standard
was deployed to protect an individual's exercise of a fundamental
right, as the majority admits, ante, at 18, n. 10. In contrast,
----
the Missouri court imposed a clear and convincing standard as an
obstacle to the exercise of a fundamental right.
The majority claims that the allocation of the risk of error is
justified because it is more important not to terminate life-
support for someone who would wish it continued than to honor the
wishes of someone who would not. An erroneous decision to ter-
minate life-support is irrevocable, says the majority, while an
erroneous decision not to terminate ``results in a maintenance of
the status quo.'' See ante, at 19.
----
But, from the point of view of the patient, an erroneous decision
in either direction is irrevocable. An erroneous decision to
terminate artificial nutrition and hydration, to be sure, will
lead to failure of that last remnant of physiological life, the
brain stem, and result in complete brain death. An erroneous de-
cision not to terminate life-support, however, robs a patient of
the very qualities protected by the right to avoid unwanted medi-
cal treatment. His own degraded existence is perpetuated; his
family's suffering is protracted; the memory he leaves behind be-
comes more and more distorted.
Even a later decision to grant him his wish cannot undo the in-
tervening harm. But a later decision is unlikely in any event.
``[T]he discovery of new evidence,'' to which the majority
refers, ibid., is more hypothetical than plausible. The majority
----
also misconceives the relevance of the possibility of ``advance-
ments in medical science,'' ibid., by treating it as a reason to
----
force someone to continue medical treatment against his will.
The possibility of a medical miracle is indeed part of the cal-
culus, but it is a part of the patient's calculus. If current
------- -
research suggests that some hope for cure or even moderate im-
provement is possible within the life-span projected, this is a
factor that should be and would be accorded significant weight in
assessing what the patient himself would choose.
B
Even more than its heightened evidentiary standard, the Missouri
court's categorical exclusion of relevant evidence dispenses with
any semblence of accurate factfinding. The court adverted to no
evidence supporting its decision, but held that no clear and con-
vincing, inherently reliable evidence had been presented to show
that Nancy would want to avoid further treatment. In doing so,
the court failed to consider statements Nancy had made to family
members and a close friend.
The court also failed to consider testimony from Nancy's mother
and sister that they were certain that Nancy would want to dis-
continue to artificial nutrition and hydration, even after the
court found that Nancy's family was loving and without malignant
motive. See 760 S. W. 2d, at 412. The court also failed to consider
the conclusions of the guardian ad litem, appointed by the trial
court, that there was clear and convincing evidence that Nancy
would want to discontinue medical treatment and that this was
in her best interests. Id., at 444 (Higgins,
--
J., dissenting from denial of rehearing); Brief for Respondent
Guardian Ad Litem 2-3. The court did not specifically define
what kind of evidence it would consider clear and convincing, but
its general discussion suggests that only a living will or
equivalently formal directive from the patient when competent
would meet this standard. See 760 S. W. 2d, at 424-425.
Too few people execute living wills or equivalently formal
directives for such an evidentiary rule to ensure adequately that
the wishes of incompetent persons will be honored.
/* That is a true shame. */
While it might be a wise social policy to encourage people to
furnish such instructions, no general conclusion about a
patient's choice can be drawn from the absence of formalities.
The probability of becoming irreversibly vegetative is so low
that many people may not feel an urgency to marshal formal evi-
dence of their preferences. Some may not wish to dwell on their
own physical deterioration and mortality. Even someone with a
resolute determination to avoid life-support under circumstances
such as Nancy's would still need to know that such things as liv-
ing wills exist and how to execute one. Often legal help would
be necessary, especially given the majority's apparent willing-
ness to permit States to insist that a person's wishes are not
truly known unless the particular medical treatment is specified.
See ante, at 21.
----
As a California appellate court observed: ``The lack of general-
ized public awareness of the statutory scheme and the typically
human characteristics of procrastination and reluctance to con-
template the need for such arrangements however makes this a tool
which will all too often go unused by those who might desire
it.'' Barber v. Superior Court, 147 Cal. App. 3d 1006, 1015, 194
------ -------- -----
Cal. Rptr. 484, 489 (1983). When a person tells family or close
friends that she does not want her life sustained artificially,
she is ``express[ing] her wishes in the only terms familiar to
her, and . . . as clearly as a lay person should be asked to ex-
press them. To require more is unrealistic, and for all practi-
cal purposes, it precludes the rights of patients to forego
life-sustaining treatment.'' In re O